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While many words enter English as slang, not all do. Some words are adopted from other languages; some are mixtures of existing words (portmanteau words), and some are new creations made of roots from dead languages: e.g. thanatopsis. No matter the origin, though, words rarely, if ever, are immediately accepted into the English language. Here is a list of the most common foreign language influences in English, where other languages have influenced or contributed words to English. *Celtic words are almost absent, except for dialectal words, such as the Yan Tan Tethera system of counting sheep. However, English syntax was influenced by Celtic languages, starting from the Middle English; for example, the system of continuous tenses (absent in other Germanic languages) was a cliché of similar Celtic phrasal structures. *French legal, military, and political terminology; words for the meat of an animal; noble words; words referring to food — e.g., ''au gratin''. Nearly 30% of English words (in an 80,000 word dictionary) may be of French origin. *Latin scientific and technical words, medical terminology, academic and legal terminology. See also: Latin influence in English. *Greek words: scientific and medical terminology (for instance -phobias and -ologies), Christian theological terminology. *Scandinavian languages such as Old Norse - words such as ''sky'' and ''troll'' or, more recently, ''geysir''. *Norman words: ''castle'', ''cauldron'', ''kennel'', ''catch'', ''cater'' are among Norman words introduced into English. The Norman language also introduced (or reinforced) words of Norse origin such as ''mug''. *Dutch - There are many ways through which Dutch words have entered the English language: via trade and navigation, such as ''skipper'' (from ''schipper''), ''freebooter'' (from ''vrijbuiter''), ''keelhauling'' (from ''kielhalen''); via painting, such as ''landscape'' (from ''landschap''), ''easel'' (from ''ezel''), ''still life'' (from ''stilleven''); warfare, such as ''forlorn hope (from ''verloren hoop''), ''beleaguer (from ''beleger''), ''to bicker'' (from ''bicken''); via civil engineering, such as ''dam'', ''polder'', ''dune'' (from ''duin''); via the New Netherland settlements in North America, such as ''cookie'' (from ''koekie''), ''boss'' from ''baas'', ''Santa Claus'' (from ''Sinterklaas''); via Dutch/Afrikaans speakers with English speakers in South Africa, such as ''wildebeest'', ''apartheid'', ''boer''; via French words of Dutch/Flemish origin that have subsequently been adopted into English, such as ''boulevard'' (from ''bolwerk''), ''mannequin'' (from ''manneken''), ''buoy'' (from ''boei''). Joseph M. Williams, in ''Origins of the English Language'', estimated that about 1% of English words are of Dutch origin.〔(Joseph M. Willams, Origins of the English Language at Amazon.com )〕 See also: List of English words of Dutch origin, List of place names of Dutch origin, Dutch linguistic influence on naval terms and List of English words of Afrikaans origin. *Spanish - words relating to warfare and tactics, for instance ''flotilla'' and ''guerrilla''; or related to science and culture, whether created in Arabic, originated in Amerindian civilizations (Cariban: ''cannibal'', ''hurricane''; Mescalero: ''apache''; Nahuatl: ''tomato'', ''coyote'', ''chocolate''; Quechua: ''potato''; Taíno: ''tobacco''), or Iberian Romance languages (''aficionado'', ''albino'', ''alligator'', ''cargo'', ''cigar'', ''embargo'', ''guitar'', ''jade'', ''mesa'', ''paella'', ''platinum'', ''plaza'', ''renegade'', ''rodeo'', ''salsa'', ''savvy'', ''sierra'', ''siesta'', ''tilde'', ''tornado'', ''vanilla'' etc.). See also: List of English words of Spanish origin. *Italian - words relating to some music, piano, ''fortissimo''. Or Italian culture, such as ''piazza'', ''pizza'', ''gondola'', ''balcony'', ''fascism''. The English word ''umbrella'' comes from Italian ''ombrello''. *Indian - words relating to culture, originating from the colonial era. Many of these words are of Persian origin rather than Hindi because Persian was the official language of the Mughal courts. e.g.: ''pyjamas'', ''bungalow'', ''verandah'', ''jungle'', ''curry'', ''shampoo'', ''khaki''. *German -Some influences from old German languages can be found in English, as for example in "foreboding". Later words relating to World War I and World War II found their way into the English language, words such as ''blitz'', ''Führer'' and ''Lebensraum''; food terms, such as ''bratwurst'', ''hamburger'' and ''frankfurter''; words related to psychology and philosophy, such a ''gestalt'', ''Übermensch'' and ''zeitgeist''. From German origin are also: ''wanderlust'', ''schadenfreude'', ''kaputt'', ''kindergarten'', ''autobahn'', ''rucksack''. See also: List of German expressions in English''. *Hebrew and Yiddish - words used in religious contexts, like Sabbath, kosher, hallelujah, amen, and jubilee or words that have become slang like ''schmuck'', ''shmooze'', ''nosh'', ''oy vey'', and ''schmutz''. *Arabic - Trade items such as ''borax'', ''coffee'', ''cotton'', ''hashish'', ''henna'', ''mohair'', ''muslin'', ''saffron''; Islamic religious terms such as ''jihad'' and ''hadith''; scientific vocabulary borrowed into Latin in the 12th and 13th centuries (''alcohol'', ''alkali'', ''algebra'', ''azimuth'', ''cipher'', ''nadir''); plants or plant products originating in Tropical Asia and introduced to medieval Europe through Arabic intermediation (''camphor'', ''jasmine'', ''lacquer'', ''lemon'', ''orange'', ''sugar''); Middle Eastern cusine words (''couscous'', ''falafel'', ''hummus'', ''kebab'', ''tahini''). See also: List of English words of Arabic origin. ==Counting== Cardinal numbering in English follows two models, Germanic and Italic. The basic numbers are zero through ten. The numbers eleven through nineteen follow native Germanic style, as do twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, and ninety. Standard English, especially in very conservative formal contexts, continued to use native Germanic style as late as World War I for intermediate numbers greater than 20, viz. "one-and-twenty," "five-and-thirty," "seven-and-ninety," and so. But with the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the Latin tradition of counting as "twenty-one," "thirty-five," "ninety-seven," etc., which is easier to say and was already common in non-standard regional dialects, gradually replaced the traditional Germanic style to become the dominant style by the end of nineteenth century. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Foreign language influences in English」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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